The Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi

The autobiography of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, subtitled The Story of My Experiments With Truth, focuses on Gandhi's struggles for non-violence and civil disobedience through the acts of Satyagraha, literally meaning â€Å"holding firmly to truth. † In each of the chapters, he talks about instances in life in which he had struggled with Truth, considering Truth being the ultimate source of energy. The question many might ask is: how can one who is so skinny, one who had to live with a stick throughout his struggles, get such energy?It was because of his experiments and the trials that Gandhi developed dietetics, non-violence, hydropathy, naturopathy etc. After finishing his studies in England, he came to South Africa where he changed from a typical lawyer to one who was remarkable. It's more surprising that with the ideologies he produced from studying law, eastern and western philosophy, he kept them all by his side and followed them to the extreme. He was conservative to h is thoughts in any situation and in following them perhaps, to some, inflexibly so.One reason I become overwhelmed by Gandhi is his simplicity, wearing a single dhoti (an Indian clothing) and living solely by vegetables. Even when he was or his son was on his deathbed, he insisted that eating anything other than vegetables was wrong. He considered that through those necessities — in line with his teachings — it is possible that one can live freely. This means one can live without food or drink, without anger or desire, if they are to follow a simple code of behavior.This book thus teaches one in practical life on how to live without any of the material needs. ? – â€Å"I cannot attain freedom by a mechanical refusal to act, but only by intelligent action in a detached manner. This struggle resolves itself into an incessant crucifixion of the flesh so that the spirit may become entire free. † – â€Å"That freedom is attainable only through slow and painful stages. † – â€Å"A reformer cannot afford to have close intimacy with him whom he seeks to reform – â€Å"he who would be friends with God must remain alone, or make the whole world his friend. – on actively forgiving sin: â€Å"Man, as soon as he gets back his consciousness of right, is thankful to the Divine mercy for the escape. † – â€Å"When such Ahimsa [non-violence] becomes all-embracing, it transforms everything it touches. There is no limit to its power. † – On monastic changes to his life: â€Å"Let not the reader think that this living made my life by any means a dreary affair. On the contrary the change harmonized my inward and outward life. It was also more in keeping with the means of my family. My life was certainly more truthful and my soul knew no bounds of joy. † ?

Two Ways

Self-transformation means self-assuming to be an American citizen, or more spiritually, an American. An immigrant who makes such assumptions expects governmental protect and embrace. The trauma of transformation is the price they are willing to pay as exchange for these benefits, while exile confronts exactly immigrants† feeling of belonging. The trauma of self-transformation is therefore a dynamic against exile. In Bharati Mukherjee's â€Å"Two Wap to Belong in America,† she outlines how both her sister and she came to the United States from India with the opes of having a more privileged life.However, she spends the most of her piece describing the various complications that have ascended, between both herself and her sister, Mira, and how these costs have affected their opinions of the American dream. Bharati, in particular, sacrifices a great deal in order to move, settle, and prosper in the United States. From her piece, I acknowledged three costs that Bharati had t o pay in order to continue to chase her dream. Bharati's first cost is her Indian citizenship.While she has no problems with giving up her Indian citizenship, others are not so quick to abandon the legacy their ancestors have established. I think it's noticeable why this is a more important cost to some immigrants. This brings me to Bharati's second cost which is the disappearance of her ancestral legacy. Bharati, along with every immigrant who elected to acquire American citizenship, fails to obey her familys established legacy as a result of receiving this citizenship. Again, she seems more than willing to deter from the path her family would like her to stay on.In other words, she has no problems â€Å"renouncing 3,000 years (at least) of caste- observant, â€Å"pure culture† marriage in the Mukherjee family'. Bharati's third cost is her innocence. When Bharati talks about living with her husband in Canada and is suddenly discriminated and encouraged to relocate because o f â€Å"a Green Paper that invited a national referendum on the unwanted side effects of â€Å"nontraditional† immigration†. She left Canada because of her being discriminated. She lost her sense of pride when that happens to her.Bharati recognizes that there is a price for those ho choose not to immigrate, but she neglects to acknowledge the dues that she has paid as a result of relocating. This statement confirms that she does not recognize the â€Å"self-transformation† that she underwent in her pursuit of the American dream. I agree that ‘The price that the immigrant willingly pays, and that the exile avoids, is the trauma of self-transformation. † I also feel that complications that surface during one's pursuit of the American dream are also the costs associated with achieving their vision Two Ways By airforce90

Blood Promise Chapter Twenty-Eight

Lissa didn't have to say anything to express her shock. The feelings of utter astonishment pouring into me said more than any words could have. I, however, had one important word for her: Duck! I think it was her surprise that made her respond so quickly. She dropped to the floor. The movement was clumsy, but it removed her body from Reed's direct attack and put her (mostly) out of range of the window. He still collided with her shoulder and the side of her head, but it only bumped her and caused a little pain. Of course, â€Å"a little pain† meant totally different things to us. Lissa had been tortured a couple of times, but most of her battles were mental. She'd never been in a one-on-one physical confrontation. Getting thrown against walls was an average occurrence for me, but for her, a small swipe to the head was monumental. Crawl away, I ordered. Get away from him and the window. Head for the door if possible. Lissa started moving on her hands and feet, but she was too slow. Reed caught hold of her hair. I kind of felt like we were playing a game of telephone. With the delay in me giving direction and her figuring out how to respond, I might as well have been passing the message through five people before it got to her. I wished I could control her body like a puppeteer, but I was no spirit user. It's going to hurt, but turn around as best you can and hit him. Oh, it did hurt. Trying to turn her body meant his hold on her hair tugged that much more painfully. She managed it reasonably well, though, and flailed out at Reed. Her hits weren't that coordinated, but they surprised him enough that he let go of her hair and tried to fend her off. That's when I noticed he wasn't overly coordinated either. He was stronger than her, true, but he obviously had no combat training short of basic hits and throwing his weight around. He hadn't come here for a true fight; he'd come to just push her out the window and be done with it. Get away if you can; get away if you can. She scrambled across the floor, but unfortunately her escape path didn't give her access to the door. Instead, she backed further into the room until her back hit a rolling desk chair. Grab it. Hit him with it. Easier said than done. He was right there, still trying to grab her and jerk her to her feet. She caught hold of the chair and tried to roll it into him. I'd wanted her to pick it up and hit him with it, but that wasn't quite so easy for her. She did, however, manage to get to her feet and get the chair between them. I directed her to keep hitting him with it in an effort to get him to retreat. It worked a little, but she didn't quite have the force to truly damage him. Meanwhile, I half expected Avery to join in the fight. It wouldn't have taken much effort to assist Reed in subduing Lissa. Instead, out of the corner of Lissa's eye, I saw Avery sitting perfectly still, her eyes unfocused and slightly glazed over. Okay. That was weird, but I had no complaints about her being out of the conflict. As it was, Lissa and Reed were in a stalemate, one I had to get her out of. You're on the defensive, I said. You need to take the attack to him. I finally got a direct answer back. What? I can't do anything like that! I have no clue how! I'll show you. Kick him-preferably between the legs. That'll take down most guys. Without words, I tried to send the feelings into her, teaching her the right way to tense muscles and strike out. Steeling herself, she pushed the chair away so that there was nothing between her and Reed. It caught him by surprise, giving her a brief opening. Her leg struck out. It missed the golden spot, but it did hit his knee. That was almost as good. He stumbled back as his leg collapsed underneath him and just managed to grab the chair for support. It tried to roll, which didn't help him any. Lissa didn't need any urging to sprint for the door at that point-except it was blocked. Simon had just entered. For a moment, both Lissa and I felt relief. A guardian! Guardians were safe. Guardians protected us. The thing was, this guardian worked for Avery, and it soon became clear his services went beyond merely keeping Strigoi away from her. He strode in, and with no hesitation grabbed Lissa and dragged her harshly back to the window. My direction faltered at that moment. I'd been an okay coach at showing her how to fend off a surly teenage boy. But a guardian? And that surly teenage boy had recovered himself and joined Simon to finish the job. Compel him! It was my last desperate bid. That was Lissa's strength. Unfortunately, while her earlier drinking had metabolized enough to improve her coordination, it was still affecting her control of spirit. She could touch the power-but not very much of it. Her control was clumsy too. Nonetheless, her resolve was strong. She drew as much of the spirit as she could, channeling it into compulsion. Nothing happened. Then, I felt that weird tickling in my head. At first I thought Avery was back on the scene, only rather than someone reaching into me, it was like they reached through me. The power in Lissa surged, and I realized what had happened. Oksana was still there, somewhere in the background, and she was lending her strength again, channeling it through me and into Lissa. Simon froze, and it was almost amusing. He twitched slightly, rocking back and forth as he tried to advance on her and finish the lethal task. It was like he was suspended in Jell-O. Lissa was hesitant to move, for fear of breaking her control. There was also the issue that Reed was not being compelled, but for the moment, he seemed too confused about what was happening to Simon to react. â€Å"You can't just kill me!† Lissa blurted out. â€Å"Don't you think people are going to ask questions when they find my body shoved out a window? â€Å"They won't notice,† said Simon stiffly. Even the words required effort. â€Å"Not when you're resurrected. And if you can't be, then it was just a tragic accident that befell a troubled girl.† Slowly, slowly, he began breaking out of her compulsion. Her power, while still there, was weakening a little-there was a leak somewhere, and it was dripping out. I suspected it might be Avery's influence or simply Lissa's mental fatigue. Maybe both. A supreme look of satisfaction crossed Simon's features as he lunged forward, and then. He froze again. A blazing gold aura lit up in Lissa's periphery. She glanced over just enough to see Adrian in the doorway. The look on his face was comical, but shocked or not, he'd picked up enough to target Simon. It was Adrian's compulsion holding the guardian in place now. Lissa squirmed away, yet again trying to keep out of that damned window's opening. â€Å"Hold him!† Lissa cried. Adrian grimaced. â€Å"I†¦ can't. What the hell? It's like there's someone else there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Avery,† said Lissa, sparing a brief glance at the other girl. Avery's face had gone pale even for a Moroi. Her breathing was heavy, and her sweating had increased. She was fighting Adrian's compulsion. A few seconds later, Simon broke free yet again. He advanced on Lissa and Adrian, though his movements seemed sluggish. Son of a bitch, I thought. Now what? demanded Lissa. Reed. Go for Reed. Get him out of the picture. Reed had been frozen during the struggle with Simon, watching with fascination. And like those of the guardian, Reed's actions seemed a little sluggish. Still, he was moving toward Lissa again. Simon had apparently decided Adrian was the immediate threat and was heading that way. Time to see if dividing and conquering would work. What about Adrian? Lissa asked. We're going to have to leave him on his own for a minute. Get to Reed. Knock him out. What But she advanced on him anyway, moving with a determination that warmed me with pride. His face curled into a snarl. He was frantic and overconfident, though-not thinking clearly and still moving in an ungainly way. Once more, I attempted to teach Lissa without words. I couldn't make her do anything, but I tried to make her feel what it was like to punch someone. How to draw back her arm, curl her fingers in the proper way, build up the strength. After what I'd seen her do earlier, the best I could hope for was a decent approximation of a punch, enough to keep him off her and create further delay. And that's when something truly beautiful happened. Lissa socked him in the nose. And I mean, socked. We both heard the impact, heard the nose break. Blood came out. He flew backward, both he and Lissa staring wide-eyed. Never, never would I have thought Lissa capable of something like that. Not sweet, delicate, beautiful Lissa. I wanted to whoop and dance with joy. But this wasn't over yet. Don't stop! Hit him again. You've got to knock him out! I did! she cried, horrified at what she'd done. Her fist was also in agonizing pain. I hadn't really mentioned that part during my coaching. No, you've got to incapacitate him, I told her. I think he and Avery are bonded, and I think she's taking her strength from him. It made sense now, why he'd frozen when Avery drew power to use compulsion, why he'd known to show up when he had. She'd used their bond to summon him. And so Lissa went after Reed again. She got in two more punches, one of which knocked his head against the wall. His lips parted and his features went slack. He dropped to the floor, eyes staring vacantly. I wasn't sure if he was entirely unconscious, but he was out of this for the moment. Off to the side, I heard a small cry from Avery. Lissa turned to Adrian and Simon. Adrian had ceased any attempts at compulsion, because Simon was engaged in a full-on attack. Adrian's face showed he'd taken a few hits of his own, and I figured that, like Lissa, he'd never engaged in this kind of physical combat. Without any need for direction from me, Lissa strode over and turned on her compulsion. Simon jerked in surprise, not stopping his attack, but caught off guard. Lissa was still weak, but the walls around him had dropped a little, just as I'd suspected they would. â€Å"Help me!† cried Lissa. With the momentary lapse on Simon's part, Adrian tried to wield his spirit too. Lissa felt and saw the change in his aura as the magic flowed through him. She felt him join her in their psychic attack on Simon, and a moment later, I sensed Oksana joining the fray. I wanted to play general and shout orders, but this wasn't my battle anymore. Simon's eyes went wide, and he fell to his knees. Lissa could sense the other two spirit users-and was a bit surprised by Oksana's presence-and had the vague impression that they were all doing slightly different things to Simon. Lissa was trying to compel him to stop his attack, to simply sit still. Her brief brush with Adrian's magic told her he was trying to make the guardian sleep, and Oksana was attempting to get Simon to run out of the room. The conflicting messages and all that power were too much. The last of Simon's defenses fell as all those mixed messages blasted into him, creating a tidal wave of spirit. He collapsed to the floor. With all of their magic combined, the spirit users had knocked him unconscious. Lissa and Adrian turned to Avery, bracing themselves, but there was no need. As soon as all that spirit had blasted into Simon, Avery had begun screaming. And screaming and screaming. She gripped the sides of her head, the sound of her voice horrible and grating. Lissa and Adrian exchanged glances, unsure how to handle this new development. â€Å"For God's sake,† gasped Adrian, exhausted. â€Å"How do we shut her up?† Lissa didn't know. She considered approaching Avery and trying to help her, in spite of all that had happened. But a few seconds later, Avery grew quiet. She didn't pass out like her companions had. She just sat there, staring. Her expression no longer resembled the dazed look she'd had while wielding spirit. It was just†¦ blank. Like there was nothing in her at all. â€Å"Wh-what happened?† asked Lissa. I had the answer. The spirit flooded from Simon into her. It fried her. Lissa was startled. How could it go from Simon to her? Because they're bonded. You said she was bonded to Reed! She is. She's bonded to both of them. Lissa had been too distracted while fighting for her life, but I'd been able to notice everyone's auras through her eyes. Avery-no longer masking hers-had possessed a gold one, just like Adrian and Lissa. Simon and Reed had had nearly identical ones, with ordinary colors-ringed in black. They were shadow-kissed, both having been brought back from the dead by Avery. Lissa asked no more questions and simply collapsed into Adrian's arms. There was nothing romantic about it, just a desperate need on both their parts to be close to a friend. â€Å"Why did you come?† she asked him. â€Å"Are you kidding? How could I not? You guys were like a bonfire with all the spirit you were wielding. I felt it all the way across campus.† He glanced around. â€Å"Man, I have a lot of questions.† â€Å"You and me both,† she muttered. I have to go, I told Lissa. I felt a little wistful at having to leave them. I miss you. When will you be back? Soon. Thank you. Thank you for being there for me. Always. I suspected I was smiling back in my own body. Oh, and Lissa? Tell Adrian I'm proud of him. The Academy room faded. I was once more sitting on a bed halfway around the world. Abe was looking at me with concern. Mark also was concerned, but he had eyes only for Oksana, who lay down beside me. She looked a little like Avery, pale and sweating. Mark clasped her hand frantically, fear all over him. â€Å"Are you okay?† She smiled. â€Å"Just tired. I'll be all right.† I wanted to hug her. â€Å"Thank you,† I breathed. â€Å"Thank you so much.† â€Å"I'm glad to have helped,† she said. â€Å"But I hope I don't have to do it again. It was†¦ strange. I'm not sure what role I played there.† â€Å"Me either.† It had been weird. Sometimes it was like Oksana had actually been there, fighting right along with Lissa and the rest. Other times, I'd felt as though Oksana had merged with me. I shuddered. Too many minds linked together. â€Å"Next time, you have to be by her side,† Oksana said. â€Å"In the real world.† I looked down at my hands, confused and unsure what to think. The silver ring gleamed up at me. I took it off and handed it to her. â€Å"This ring saved me. Can it heal you even though you made it?† She held it in her hand for a moment and then gave it back. â€Å"No, but like I said, I'll recover. I heal quickly on my own.† It was true. I'd seen Lissa heal remarkably fast in the past. It was part of always having spirit in you. I stared at the ring, and something troubling came to mind. It was a thought that had struck me while riding with the old couple to Novosibirsk, when I'd moved in and out of consciousness. â€Å"Oksana†¦ a Strigoi touched this ring. And for a few moments-while he did-it was like†¦ well, he was still Strigoi, no question. But while he held it, he was almost like his old self too.† Oksana didn't answer right away. She looked up at Mark, and they held each other's gazes for a long time. He bit his lip and shook his head. â€Å"Don't,† he said. â€Å"It's a fairy tale.† â€Å"What?† I exclaimed. I looked back and forth between him. â€Å"If you know something about this-about Strigoi-you have to tell me!† Mark spoke sharply in Russian, a warning in his voice. Oksana looked equally determined. â€Å"It's not our place to withhold information,† she replied. She turned to me, face grave. â€Å"Mark told you about the Moroi we met long ago†¦ the other spirit user?† I nodded. â€Å"Yeah.† â€Å"He used to tell a lot of stories-most of which I don't think were true. But one of them†¦ well, he claimed he restored a Strigoi to life.† Abe, silent thus far, scoffed. â€Å"That is a fairy tale.† â€Å"What?† My whole world reeled. â€Å"How?† â€Å"I don't know. He never elaborated much, and the details often changed. His mind was going, and I think half of what he said was imaginary,† she explained. â€Å"He's crazy,† said Mark. â€Å"It wasn't true. Don't get caught up in an insane man's fantasy. Don't fixate on this. Don't let it become your next vigilante quest. You need to go back to your bondmate.† I swallowed, every emotion in the world churning in my stomach. Was it true? Had a spirit user restored a Strigoi to life? Theoretically†¦ well, if spirit users could heal and bring back the dead, why not the undead? And Dimitri†¦ Dimitri had definitely seemed altered while holding the ring. Had spirit affected him and touched some piece of his old self? At the time, I'd just assumed it was fond memories of his family affecting him†¦ â€Å"I need to talk to this guy,† I murmured. Not that I knew why. Fairy tale or not, it was too late. I'd done it. I'd killed Dimitri. Nothing would bring him back now, no miracle of spirit. My heart rate increased, and I could hardly breathe. In my mind's eye, I saw him falling, falling†¦ falling forever with the stake in his chest. Would he have said he loved me? I would ask myself that for the rest of my life. Agony and grief flooded me, though at the same time, relief was there too. I had freed Dimitri from a state of evil. I had brought him peace, sending him on to happiness. Maybe he and Mason were together in heaven somewhere, practicing some guardian moves. I had done the right thing. There should be no regret here. Oblivious to my emotions, Oksana addressed my last statement. â€Å"Mark wasn't kidding. This man is crazy-if he's even still alive. The last time we saw him, he could barely hold up a conversation or even use his magic. He ran off into hiding. No one knows where he is-except maybe his brother.† â€Å"Enough,† warned Mark. Abe's attention was piqued, however. He leaned forward, shrewd as ever. â€Å"What's this man's name?† â€Å"Robert Doru,† said Mark after a few hesitant moments. It was no one I knew, and I realized how pointless this all was. This guy was a lost cause and had likely imagined the whole idea of saving a Strigoi in a fit of insanity. Dimitri was gone. This part of my life was over. I needed to get back to Lissa. Then I noticed that Abe had gone very still. â€Å"Do you know him?† I asked. â€Å"No. Do you?† â€Å"No.† I scrutinized Abe's face. â€Å"You sure look like you know something, Zmey.† â€Å"I know of him,† Abe clarified. â€Å"He's an illegitimate royal. His father had an affair, and Robert was the result. His father actually included him as part of the family. Robert and his half-brother grew quite close, though few knew about it.† Of course Abe would know about it, though. â€Å"Doru is Robert's mother's last name.† No surprise. Doru wasn't a royal name. â€Å"What's his father's last name?† â€Å"Dashkov. Trenton Dashkov.† â€Å"That,† I told him, â€Å"is a name I know.† I had met Trenton Dashkov years ago while accompanying Lissa and her family to a royal holiday party. Trenton had been an old, stooped man then, kind but on the brink of death. Moroi often lived to be over a hundred, but he'd been pushing a hundred and twenty-which was ancient even by their standards. There had been no sign or whisper of him having an illegitimate son, but Trenton's legitimate son had been there. That son had even danced with me, showing a great courtesy to a lowly dhampir girl. â€Å"Trenton is Victor Dashkov's father,† I said. â€Å"You're saying Robert Doru is Victor Dashkov's half-brother.† Abe nodded, still watching me closely. Abe, as I'd noted, knew everything. He likely knew my history with Victor. Oksana frowned. â€Å"Victor Dashkov is someone important, isn't he?† Out in their Siberian cottage, she was removed from the turmoil of Moroi politics, unaware that the man who would have been king had been locked away in prison. I started laughing-but not because I found any humor in the situation. This whole thing was unbelievable, and my hysteria was the only way to let out all the crazy feelings within me. Exasperation. Resignation. Irony. â€Å"What's so funny?† asked Mark, startled. â€Å"Nothing,† I said, knowing if I didn't stop laughing, I'd probably start crying. â€Å"That's the thing. It's not funny at all.† What a wonderful twist to my life. The only person alive who might know something about saving Strigoi was the half-brother of my greatest living enemy, Victor Dashkov. And the only person who might know where Robert was was Victor himself. Victor had known a lot about spirit, and now I had a good idea where he'd first learned about it. Not that it mattered. None of this mattered anymore. Victor himself could have been able to convert Strigoi for all the good it would have done me. Dimitri was dead by my hand. He was gone, saved in the only way I knew how. I'd had to choose between him and Lissa once before, and I'd chosen him. Now there could be no question. I'd chosen her. She was real. She was alive. Dimitri was the past. I'd been staring absentmindedly at the wall, and now I looked up and met Abe squarely in the eyes. â€Å"All right, old man,† I said. â€Å"Pack me up and send me home.†

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Is mobile marketing the future of advertising - Case Study Example By definition, Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) is a new competitive weapon and way of companies to draw maximum benefits from one shot. In other words, it is a concept designed to give users of the marketing mix an opportunity to make use of all aspects of marketing communication such as advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and direct marketing a unified force, rather than permitting each to work in isolation (Kortler 2002). Varey (2001) considers integrated marketing as a paradigm shift towards more personalise, customer-oriented, technology-supported marketing systems. Under this new approach, it is recommended that different communications channels used by the company to communicate with prospective customers and customers be integrated. Such an action will result to a clear, consistent and compelling message about the company's product and services. The effect of which will be glaringly reflected on the sales record subsequently (Kotler. 2005). Integration of a company's marketing communication activities can avoid confusion and disaffection in the minds of consumers and buyers, offering a comfortable identity to customers and staff (Kotler. 2005). As marketing has shifted to a more one to one direction, marketers have employed different methods to get to their target markets. Mobile advertising is fast becoming the order of the day (Baker 2007). The current revolution of information and communication technologies is changing our business environment drastically: new technologies influence the way we organize our work and the environment in whic h we compete, introducing new rules and new relative powers among incumbents, newcomers and even entire markets. This complex, evolving environments are referred to as New Technology Playgrounds (Ace 2001). Against this background, this paper seeks to answer the following questions Is mobile marketing the future of advertising' What are the variables that motivate companies to use mobile advertising' How do mobile marketing differs from the other advertising methods' What has been the trend in mobile marketing in the last five years' What proportion of the advertisement budget is allocated to mobile marketing' 1.1 Objectives and Purpose of Study This paper focuses on the growing trend of mobile marketing as a new way of advertisement. In particular, the paper seeks to analyse and evaluate if mobile marketing represents the future direction of advertisement. Other objectives include To examine the salient features of mobile marketing as compared to the other advertisement method. The paper also aims at analysing mobile marketing trend in the last five years through an examination of the budget allocated towards mobile marketing. 1.2 Importance and Significance of Study This study aims at delineating the use of mobile marketi

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Management Research paper - Essay Example The aim of this system and policy was to wade off any interests of Western Conquerors. Some of the modern economic practices developed during the reign of Meiji. It is important to remember that during the Meiji period, the Japanese economy was still in shambles, finishing the remnants of feudalism having endured centuries of closure to foreign investors both directly and indirectly. This system was responsible for the slow technological development in the country. This was because the approach emphasized on building domestic imitation and innovations on Western goods. This system worked at the expense of importing products (McMillan, 1996, 71). The spirit of Meiji era captured the entire philosophy thus Japanese spirit, Western technology. Elements of the spirit and the Japanese culture over flowed to the twentieth century where the autonomy of the economy was evident both at micro and at macroeconomic levels. The ambition was to preserve the traditional character. The national econ omy has a long history of putting measures that restrict the process of bringing imports into Japan both directly and indirectly by investors. This has led to concomitant trade excesses in Japan for many years. This culture trickles down to the where large and complex families own and run most companies interdependently centered on their banking industries. The banks include Hitachi, Sumitomo, and Mitsubishi among many more. Economists agree that theoretically, the business organizations manage import components, raw materials, as well as capital from abroad through their affiliated organizations. Analysis The Japanese management techniques or the Japanese management style refers to a group of Japanese cultural ways of working as well as managerial behaviors after the World War II. Most of these management aspects wee responsible for driving the Japanese economy to the status as one of the world economic superpowers. The economy of Japan is the second largest in world second to that of the United States of America. The management techniques are also behind the growth of Japanese business especially the manufacturing sector. This sector is the most competitive in the world when compared to other manufacturing sectors. However, through the nineteen nineties, Japan struggled through economic hardships and recession leading to some experts in economic matters to question the ability of the traditional Japanese management styles to sustain the economy. The Japanese management technique concentrates on the need to for the information to move from bottom of the company or institution to the top. It is the bottom up approach for flow of information. This process leads to the senior management taking over supervisory roles as opposed to the hands-on system of management. The management style originates in the mid-level of the institution or company then moves upwards to the higher level for approval and ratification. The greatest advantage for this system of management is that the teams tasked with the responsibility of implementing a management policy are involved in the process of developing the same. The rise of a Japanese manager in the management ranks in the company of institution makes him or her more responsible, seems unassuming, as well as unambitious. Evaluation of effective leadership in the Japanese mana

Early Colonial Constitutions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Early Colonial Constitutions - Research Paper Example ystem with several shortcomings became a vital element in the preparation of a new constitution for America and the colonial empire itself; the question is worth a thorough investigation. According to Scott (2011), Colonial governments by the Englishmen were said to have been formed in American colonies; however, they attained full development after they separated. Recently, Americans have started giving the topic a lot of attention just like the English writers gave it earlier on which is still a spectacle for many on why the sudden urge to know more about it. The colonial constitutions were simply early systems of governments formed in colonies. Some like those in Massachusetts from inception were established for the purpose of separating. Others like those in Virginia were meant to maintain the connection between them and their mother country and are still used up to date. The shallow but, still extremely prevalent view would result in the split-up of American colonies. George III, together with his advisers, was responsible for the blunders that resulted to the separation. Wallis (2010) notes that the biggest mistake was the failure to agree on a mutual understanding that was as a result of distance and complications of communication and religious sympathy differences. An example of a wrangle due to miss understanding arose when one among the many protestant parties triumphed in an election. When independence was declared in England, European settlers had stayed in America for approximately 250 years. Though the colonists were under the British crown the colonized colonies worked independently and had a vast experience in self- governance. Many urban towns held meetings and seminars to boost public businesses and some colonies had the program input in their governments’ programs. Later on they started to rebel as they felt that the British were continuously increasingly suppressing their self-governance. Before the 1750s colonists used to pay very few

Examine the distinguishing features of HRM in Europe Essay - 1

Examine the distinguishing features of HRM in Europe - Essay Example Human Resource Management is an important part of this global trend. Not too many years ago, M.B.A. graduates were simply required to have a basic level of understanding of a single HRM system located within their own country. Today, business leaders must deal with a complex international HRM environment where a company’s personnel practices are often shaped by the culture of the country, the corporate expectations of its citizens and the role that a country’s public sector agencies play in determining private sector outcomes (Briscoe &Schuler, 2008). Much of the literature on HRM in European firms attempts to determine if HRM policies and practices across Western Europe are converging or diverging. Those who support the convergent approach argue that HRM systems in European democratic polities share much in common and that a European model of HRM has emerged particularly since the advent of the European Union. Proponents of the divergent approach contend that Europe is comprised of many different cultures, social and political institutions, languages and economic systems andd that a unitary model of HRM is impossible to achieve even within the context of the EU (Brewster, 2007). This convergent-divergent dichotomy serves as a useful theoretical framework for this paper. Through the examination of the recent literature on international HRM in European businesses, the paper argues that existing HRM practices in Europe tend to be more representative of the divergent end of the HRM policy continuum. It concludes with a discussion of some of the ramifications that a divergent HRM policy environment has for the future of economic prosperity in the European Union. In a 2009 comprehensive analysis of human resource practices in Europe, Mayrhoefer and Brewster developed an empirical model that allows for comparisons of HRM systems and practices within European countries.

Charting trip across the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Charting trip across the US - Essay Example We were making an adventurers religious journey organized by the Presbyterian churches of USA. It entailed all youth members around the nation. This was back in 1856, when the Natives’ policies in the United States of America were not fully defined. We began the train in an open caravan of the time at around 8pm. We were to follow the direction as shown in the diagram below. One of the most demanding moments was when we got to the famous Gunnison National Forest. This is a forest known to have poisonous serpents, and other large animals. Therefore, we had to camp on the western side of the forest, to facilitates the continuation of the journey the following morning. At around 3am, we continued with the journey, hoping for the best. At Utah, State at the central region as one approaches west; we met a group of youths having their way to Reno. They looked hostile and unfriendly, so we kept a safe distance as they were three times the members of my group. They were Indians and Mexicans, just like most of us; this meant that they had come from the southern-west boarder. Between the two regions, the journey was excellent as we met other three groups a distance of 102KM from the Capital of Utah. The trail took us 4 days, and we arrived to the destination point safe and sound. Reno was familiar to me, as this was my home area; I learnt in Roselle Park, and luckily got and employment in the same region. 1. The Concentration Policy – this was an idea to concentrate these native in one large reservation. It was to prevent them from interfering with the white settlers in their railroad constructions and other travelling adventures. The policy affected the trail in a great way; we had to get a permit. It came to a success because the initiators of the trip were white religious leaders (Marger 36). 2. Termination Policy – it is the policy that ended the Bureau of Indian Affair. It also ended the government’s social responsibilities.

Microsoft Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Microsoft - Term Paper Example What is the company’s overall mode of doing business? Microsoft’s overall mode of doing business revolves around its strategies and diversification. Established back in 1975, the company has made significant progress in the area of information technology. Their aim was to facilitate people and organizations in doing business globally with an integrated computer technology (Farhoomand). They have altered the way people use to communicate, entertain and work by developing a list of market software, hardware and service devices. These were based upon enhancing the convenience level and revealing an entirely new area of opportunities. Their mode of doing business is incorporated with the development of significant revenues, sustenance of services and products, trade of hardware devices and advertisement of portfolio to a wide range of customers (Farhoomand). Their fundamental product range includes operating systems particularly designed for contemporary computers, phones, servers and the devices with enhanced artificial intelligence. Additionally they have server and productivity applications, solution generating business applications, facilities for online marketing and video games (Farhoomand). All of these products and service features are available to their customers around the globe with an addition of hardware devices such as Surface RT, Kinect especially for Xbox 360 etc. Furthermore, Microsoft provides an experience of online browsing and communication through its products including Bing, MS office, Skype etc. (Rivkin). In order to increase the work experience of their clients they are continuously working for the further development of hardware, software and services consistent with the latest technology. They extensively believe in the empowerment of individuals and businesses through providing them value and opportunities to grow (Farhoomand). Following Income Statement of Microsoft Corporation represents the financial position of the comp any in the year 2012-2013 (Earnings Release FY14 Q1: Financial Statement). How are they positioned competitively in the markets they serve and what are their fundamental strengths and weaknesses that play into their positioning? Positioning Microsoft is competitively positioned in the consumer and business markets through the incorporation of software and hardware devices and an extensive range of applications for business solutions and entertainment (Farhoomand). In a broader perspective their business positioning can be categorized into following segments (Farhoomand). Platform Services and Products: This segment is particularly positioned to provide the online services to the global customers such as internet browsing, communication, networking etc. Business Segment: Microsoft has greatly enhanced the overall nature of businesses internationally through providing its renowned office applications. However, in order to remain competitive Microsoft did not chose to cater the needs o f large multinational organizations which were already benefitting from Oracle and Sap rather it positioned itself to the small enterprises. Entertainment Segment: Microsoft entered into the gaming market in 2001. This initiation was intended to position the company’s products and services to the entertainment industry. Strengths and Weaknesses Microsoft’s major strengths include its provision of advanced services provided to the global customers while continuously evaluating and improving its management plans. Although the drastic change in political environment and increase in terrorist activities have brought greater challenges for the company but Microsoft was able to manage its business operations and product positioning through research and

Linguistics and Point Essay Example for Free

Linguistics and Point Essay I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub point moving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub point moving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences.] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives.) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences.] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of  the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences.] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives.) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences.  ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ] 1. Sub-sub point [Write sub-sub points in full sentences. ] 2. Sub-sub point B. Sub pointmoving from the introduction into the first main point of the body. A connective is not required here but may be used if desired. For information on connectives, review pages 177-178 of your textbook. Skip a space above and below connectives. ) BODY I. A single complete sentence expressing the main point of this section of the speech A. Sub point [As with main points, sub points should be written in full sentences. ]

Modern and Postmodern Traditions in Power and Law

Modern and Postmodern Traditions in Power and Law The Law and Power Relations in Society:  A Brief Review of Modern and Postmodern Traditions To achieve an understanding of how, at the beginning of the 21st century, law has come to be understood as a manifestation of social power, it is necessary to place the question within the framework of the dominant intellectual paradigms of the past one hundred years. Such a consideration is relevant because the two major paradigms namely, modernism and postmodernism have operated according to contrary assumptions about reality in general and social reality in particular. Modernism, which dominated Western society throughout the 20th century until the 1960s, assumed that all human enterprises should be conducted according to the principles of universal rationality, with a strongly centralizing tendency emphasized in all social institutions. Postmodernism, on the other hand, assumes that human beings are mainly motivated, not by rationality, but by a virtually endless diversity of individual and cultural values. Thus, any overarching theory about how people do, or should, live in so ciety is bound to be inadequate, and social institutions must allow for the full range of human diversity. In the discipline of sociology Functionalist Theory dominated the modern period, but during the past few decades Critical Theory has come to dominate the postmodern period. To put it simply, Functionalism assumes that society works, because of its inherent harmony, while Critical Theory assumes that society does not work, because of its inherent conflicts. As far as law is concerned, during the modern period a rationally independent and fair distribution of justice was supposed to characterize the legal system. But during the postmodern period the legal system has come to be regarded by many of its critics as the source of often inequitable i.e. distributions of power, specifically motivated by, and ultimately working for, the interests of the state in general and the cultural elite in particular. The writings of Max Weber (1864-1920), one of the founding spirits of sociology, illustrate the modern conception of law perfectly. According to Mathieu Deflem (2009: 45-46), Weber argues that the law, like all modern social institutions, including politics and the economy, is dominated by purposive rationalization, posited as the standard for both jurisprudence (legal theorizing or lawmaking) and adjudication (law-finding) in the courts. Rationalization leads to the establishment of the principle of the rule of law. This means that all social conflicts are to be settled in the courts according to established laws that are written down and codified. The rule of law is intended to be impersonal and objective, giving rise to a adage Justice is blind, a central value of Western democracies, sometimes phrased as the sayings All are equal before the law and No one is above the law. According to Joyce Sterling and Wilbert Moore (1987: 68-69), Weber accepts law as creating its own sphere of autonomous social reality, but its influence is relative, not absolute. The more a legal system looks to itself rather than to external social, political, and ethical systems in making and applying law, the greater the degree of relative autonomy. In the United States legal system The Exclusionary Rule and The Miranda Rule are examples of the law defining itself and acting independently of other social concerns. A second characteristic of legal autonomy is the principle of equal competencies whereby counsel is provided for those who cannot afford it. Weber distinguishes between subjective rationality, in which values influence individual decisions, and objective rationality, in which principles determine social decisions. He also distinguishes between formal or purely legal law, and substantive or extra-legal law. Similarly, Weber distinguishes between rational law, determined by general principles, and irrational law, determined by individual and contextual considerations. Formal rational law is called positive law, while formal irrational law is called charismatic or revealed law. Substantive rational law is called natural law, while substantive irrational law is called traditional law. In the words of Sterling and Moore (1987: 75), Although Weber denied that he was posing a unilineal process of rationalization, he did tend to view legal systems as moving from irrational to rational, and from substantive to formal rationality. Moreover, Weber links his typology of law to his typology of politics. He identified three types of po litical legitimization: traditional, charismatic, and legal. Once again, according to Sterling and Moore (1987: 76), As law becomes rationalized, it becomes its own legitimizing principle in other words, the rule of law, what Weber calls formal legal rationality. This is aided by bureaucracy and professionalization, ensuring calculability or predictability in legal matters and making the system self-contained and seamless, almost totally isolated from moral, economic, political, and cultural interests. Webers modern rationalistic conception of law has suffered a severe critical attack on various fronts since the 1960s. Austin Turk (1976: 276) sums up the critical legal position perfectly: Contrary to the rational model, law is actually a set of resources whose control and mobilization can in many ways . . . generate and exacerbate conflicts rather than resolving or softening them. In short, power is the control of resources and law is power (280). The mere mention of power in relat ion to law is bound to evoke the spirit of Karl Marx (1818-1883). According to Alan Hunt (1985: 12, 20-22), the content, principles, and forms of law are all matters of ideology that is the reflective distortion of reality in any human claim to knowledge, making Webers political legitimation by rule of law nothing more than one opinion among many (sometimes irrational) competing opinions about the proper relation of law and power. Moreover, as Elizabeth Armstrong and Mary Bernstein (2008: 75-76) point out, the modified Marxist argument whereby governments are the only rule makers and social reformers define themselves solely in relation to the state has now become obsolete. According to these authors, culture itself is constitutive of power. If this is true, then law has already lost much of its supposed power merely by definition. Kim Lane Scheppele (1994: 390-400) provides an excellent overview of critical jurisprudence theory, all of it based on the foundational belief that rational jurisprudence theory masks the fact that political interests or power relationships are what really drives the legal systems of Western democracies. An attack on liberal legalism argues that rights, neutrality, and procedural justice are all fictions designed to maintain social inequalities. The indeterminacy thesis argues that contradictions and inconsistencies within the law make purely rational adjudication impossible. There are many particular manifestations of critical jurisprudence theory. Feminist jurisprudence, for example, contends that the way gender is defined socially often makes the law patriarchal and oppressive to women, especially in regard to such issues as abortion, rape, domestic violence, pregnancy, sexual harassment, employment discrimination, child custody, and pornography. Feminists are divided on how to ri ght the wrongs of rational jurisprudence. Some advocate treating women exactly the same as men, while others argue that women should be treated differently. In either case, the objective is to achieve equality with men through the law. Similarly, critical race theory argues that people of color have been oppressed by the law by being silenced or having others speak for them, and they have pleaded vigorously for the opportunity to tell their stories, so their culture and their lives can be treated fairly by the law. In fact, the theme of the relationship of power to the law has been most compelling addressed in terms of the indeterminacy of language itself an argument expressed by Jacques Derrida in his theory of deconstruction. If the rational rule of law is enshrined as a written code, but language itself is open to a diversity of interpretation, how can the rule of law be trusted not to be abused by the judges and lawyers representing a powerful political à ©lite? Critics would argue that such an abuse is inevitable. References Armstrong, E. A., Bernstein, M. (2008). Culture, power, nad institution: A approach to social movements. Sociological Theory, 26 (1), 74-99. Deflem, M. (2008). Sociology of Law: Visions of a Scholarly Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hunt, A. (1985). The ideology of law: Advances and problems in recent applications of the concept of ideology to the analysis of law. Law Society Review, 19 (1), 11-38. Scheppele, K. L. (1994). Legal theory and social theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 383-406. Sterling, J. S., Moore, W. E. (1987). Webers analysis of legal rationalization: A critique and constructive modification. Sociological Forum, 2 (1), 67-89. Turk, A. T. (1976). Law as a weapon in social conflict. Social Problems, 23 (3), 276-291.

Cause and Effects of the Rise in Cohabitation

Cause and Effects of the Rise in Cohabitation Recent decades have witnessed a dramatic rise in cohabitation in much of Western Europe including the United Kingdom (Ermisch 2005; Ermisch and Francesconi 2000a; Haskey 2001; Kiernan 2001; Murphy 2000). This rise has taken place against a dramatic decline in marriage rates. A so-called golden age of marriage that prevailed in the United Kingdom from the 1950s up to the 1970s (Festy, 1980), has been eroded. Marriage is no longer the exclusive marker of first union nor the pre-eminent context within which children are born; (Kiernan, 2001). The decline in the popularity of marriage indicates that no longer is marriage seen as the only organizing principle for relationships (Hall, 1993: 8) and therefore legal marriage has given way to a variety of optional non-traditional forms of living together (Boh, 1989: This essay will seek to examine whether the rise in cohabitation will witness a decline in marriage to a point where marriage is a rare phenomenon. This will entail an analysis of statistical evidence on both cohabitation and marriage and the explanations that have been provided. These include notions of selfish individualism (Morgan, 2000), notions of the democratic, consensual and pure relationship (Giddens, 1992; Beck-Gernsheim, 2000), Beckers (1973, 1981) model of marriage, the common-law marriage myth, commitment in cohabiting partnerships, and the use of lived law to create a DIY variety of marriage (Duncan et. al. 2005). The 1960s and the early 1970s was a golden age of marriage in the United Kingdom during which marriage was highly popular among the young ages (Kiernan Eldridge 1987) and a record peak of 480,285 marriages was recorded in 1972 (ONS, 2008). However, since the 1970s there have been considerable changes amounting to a structural shift in individuals demographic behaviour and societal norms (Haskey, 2001) and among these are increases in divorce and in cohabitation, that is, in couples who live together in intimate relationships without being legally married. Similarly, Ferri et al. (2003) have documented several demographic changes which led social commentators to lament the end of marriage. These include significant rises in cohabitation, divorce, lone parent families, single parent households, children born out of marriage and age of marriage.   These changes, it was assumed, led to the disintegration of traditional structures and codes and ultimately to the end of marriage. Statistical evidence indeed shows that there has been a long-term decline in marriage rates and a significant rise in cohabitation. From 1971 to 1995 first marriage rates fell by 90% for teenage women and 80% for women aged 20-24. Median age at first marriage rose from 23.4 to 27.9 yrs for men and 21.4 to 26.0 years for women (Murphy and Wang 1999). The decline in remarriage rates has been even more pronounced. For divorced men, the remarriage rate has fallen by 75% since 1971 (Murphy and Wang 1999). There were 311,000 marriages in the UK in 2004 and this figure fell to 270,000 in 2007. This represents almost half the number of marriages that took place in 1972 when marriage peaked (ONS 2009). On the other hand, cohabiting is the fastest growing family type in the UK (with the proportion of cohabiting couple families increasing from 9% to 14% between 1996 and 2006), (ONS, 2009). Among single women marrying during the latter part of the 1990s, 77% had cohabited with their future husband, compared with 33% of those marrying during the late 1970s, and only 6% of those marrying in the late 1960s (Haskey 2001). During the 1960s, 40% of remarriages were preceded by a period of cohabitation; and this figured had soared to around 85% in 2000. (Murphy 2000). The 2001 Census recorded just over 2 million cohabiting couples in England and Wales (a 67% increase from 1991). When the new form of cohabitation arrived in the 1970s it was mainly a child-free prelude to marriage. Increasingly, children are being born to cohabiting couples. In 2006, 56% of births in England and Wales were outside of marriage compared with 8% in 19z71. (ONS, 2009). Between 1996 and 2006, the number of cohabiti ng couples in the UK increased by over 60%, from 1.4 million to 2.3 million, ONS, 2009). The number of cohabiting couples in England and Wales is projected to almost double to 3.8 million by 2031 (which will be over one in four couples on this projection). (ONS, 2009). Social theorists have conceptualized these trends in terms of individualization theory. The theory which includes notions of the democratic, consensual and pure relationship (Giddens, 1992; Beck-Gernsheim, 2000) and notions of selfish individualism (Morgan, 2000), has emerged as the dominant contested theoretical approach in explaining whether the rise in cohabitation means the end of marriage. According to the former, modern society is viewed as having entered a late modern epoch of de-traditionalisation and individualisation in which traditional rules and institutional frameworks have lost ground, only to be replaced by more modern and rational rules (Beck, 1992 and Giddens, 1992, 1994). Institutional forces such as education, the modern economy and the welfare state have freed individuals from externally imposed constraints, moral codes and traditional customs, a development which Beck (1994) says is a disembedding of individual lives from the structural fabric of social instituti ons and age-specific norms. According to Brannen and Nilsen (2005), social class no longer has the same structuring role that it once had.   Individuals who used to have a standard biography no longer have pre-given life trajectories but are instead compelled to reflexively make their own choices and hence create their own biographies. At the same time, the project of self, with an emphasis on individual self-fulfillment and personal development, comes to replace relational, social aims. This results in families of choice which are diverse, fluid and unresolved, constantly chosen and re-chosen (Weeks 2001) and which Hardill, (2002) refer to as the postmodern household. In families of choice all issues are subject to negotiation and decision making (Beck and Beck- Gernsheim1995, Beck-Gernsheim 2002). Individuals are seen as preferring cohabitation to marriage because they wish to keep their options and their negotiations open ( Wu, 2000). The individualisation theory sees modern relationships as being based on individual fulfillment and consensual love, with sexual and emotional equality, replacing formal unions based on socially prescribed gender roles. Sexuality is largely freed from institutional, normative and patriarchal control as well as from reproduction, producing a plastic sexuality, which serves more as means of self-expression and selfactualisation rather than as a means to reproduction and cementing institutionalized partnership (Giddens, 1992). Giddens argues that that such plastic sexuality as part of the project of self is realized in pure relationships an ideal type that isolates what is most characteristic for intimacy in reflexive modernity, Giddens (1991, 1992).   This is pure because it is entered into for its own sake and for the satisfaction it provides to the individuals involved. The pure relationship must therefore be characterized by openness, involvement, reciprocity and closeness, a nd it presupposes emotional and sexual democracy and equality, Giddens (1991, 1992). According to Cherlin (2004:853), the pure relationship is not tied to an institution such as marriage or the desire to raise children. Rather, it is free-floating, independent of social institutions or economic life. The individualisation theory asserts that these changes in relationships contribute towards the decentring of the married, co-resident, heterosexual couple. It no longer occupies the centre-ground statistically, normatively, or as a way of life (Beck-Gernsheim, 2002; Roseneil and Budgeon, 2004). Instead other forms of living such as cohabitation, living alone, lone parenting, same-sex partnerships, or living apart have become more common and are both experienced and perceived as equally valid. However, most English-speaking commentators (e.g. Morgan, 1995, 2000, 2003; Bellah et al., 1985; Popenoe, 1993; Dnes and Rowthorne, 2002) have developed a pessimistic view of family change. In cohabitation they have seen a moral decline and its harmful effects on society, a loss of family values, individual alienation, social breakdown, rise in crime and other social ills and social, emotional and educational damage to children. For them, the trend in statistics is clear evidence of selfish individualism and have thus advocated for turning the clock back by promoting marriage among other things. Morgan (1995) for instance, argues that without the traditional family to socialize children and in particular to provide role models and discipline for young men, delinquency and crime will escalate and society as a whole will be at risk. To avoid this social policy should seek positively to support marriage and promote traditional gender roles for men and women. According to Morgan (2003), cohabiting relationships are fragile. They are always more likely to break up than marriages entered into at the same time, regardless of age or income. On average, cohabitations last less than two years before breaking up or converting to marriage. Less than four per cent of cohabitations last for ten years or more. She also believes that cohabitation should be seen primarily as a prelude to marriage but increasingly it is part of a pattern which simply reflects an increase in sexual partners and partner change (Morgan, 2003:127). Morgan (1999) also argues that cohabitation is concentrated among the less educated, less skilled and the unemployed. The individualization theory in its various versions, has been seen as having its merit in terms of indicating trends in post-modern societies, but has been criticized for lacking reliable methodologies and for lacking empirical and historical evidence. According to Thernborn (2004), individualisation theory should be seen as a geographically and historically limited exaggeration among the variety and long durà ©es of socio-sexual systems. Individualisation theory is seen as largely resting on the evidence of qualitative work using purposive samples of particular social groups in particular contexts and localities. They do not often use representative samples or total population figures which can accurately portray overall social patterns. According to Sayer (1992) individualization theorists have used intensive research design which are indeed in-depth and able to access social process more directly, and understand its context but points out that such work needs to be complemented by extensive research on patterns and distributions, using representative survey for example. Duncan and Edwards (1999) share the same view that the use of both intensive and extensive research designs will enable generalizations to be made. In addition intensive work will enable better interpretation of the representative patterns revealed by extensive work and to link process to pattern directly rather than depending upon post-hoc deduction, (Duncan and Edwards 1999). Critics of the individualisation theory have argued that the theory underplays the significance of the social and geographical patterning of values and behaviour and neglects the importance of local cultural and social contexts. According to Duncan and Irwin structures of economic necessity, social groups and moral codes have not gone away, although they may have changed. Family forms are still deeply influenced by local structural conditions or contexts and although people might be less constrained by older traditions, this does not necessarily mean individualisation. The traditional structures of class, gender, religion and so on have a continuing importance, (Duncan and Irwin, 2004, 2005). Individualisation theory assumes that individuals can exercise choice and shape their lives. However, the theory has been criticized for taking insufficient account of the context in which individuals make their choices. Critics of individualisation have pointed out, peoples capacity to make choices, for example in respect of separation and divorce, must depend in large measure on their environment, whether for example, on the constraints of poverty, social class and gender, or, more positively, on the safety net provided by the welfare state (Lasch, 1994; Lewis, 2001a). In addition, the context in which people are making their choices is constantly shifting. Thus the meaning of what it is to be married, or to be a parent has changed and continues to change. Actors will in all likelihood be affected by these changes over their own life course and must expect to have to re-visit the decisions they have made, for example in respect of the division of paid and unpaid work, especially at critical points of transition such as parenthood. Charles and Harris (2004) have argued that choices regarding work/life balance are different at different states of the lifecycle. The individualization theory in its various versions, has been seen as having its merit in terms of indicating trends in post-modern societies, but has been criticized for lacking reliable methodologies and for lacking empirical and historical evidence. According to Thernborn (2004), individualisation theory should be seen as a geographically and historically limited exaggeration among the variety and long durà ©es of socio-sexual systems. Individualisation theory is seen as largely resting on the evidence of qualitative work using purposive samples of particular social groups in particular contexts and localities. They do not often use representative samples or total population figures which can accurately portray overall social patterns. According to Sayer (1992) individualization theorists have used intensive research design which are indeed in-depth and able to access social process more directly, and understand its context but points out that such work needs to be complemented by extensive research on patterns and distributions, using representative survey for example. Duncan and Edwards (1999) share the same view that the use of both intensive and extensive research designs will enable generalizations to be made. In addition intensive work will enable better interpretation of the representative patterns revealed by extensive work and to link process to pattern directly rather than depending upon post-hoc deduction, (Duncan and Edwards 1999). Critics of the individualisation theory have argued that the theory underplays the significance of the social and geographical patterning of values and behaviour and neglects the importance of local cultural and social contexts. According to Duncan and Irwin structures of economic necessity, social groups and moral codes have not gone away, although they may have changed. Family forms are still deeply influenced by local structural conditions or contexts and although people might be less constrained by older traditions, this does not necessarily mean individualisation. The traditional structures of class, gender, religion and so on have a continuing importance, (Duncan and Irwin, 2004, 2005). Individualisation theory assumes that individuals can exercise choice and shape their lives. However, the theory has been criticized for taking insufficient account of the context in which individuals make their choices. Critics of individualisation have pointed out, peoples capacity to make choices must depend in large measure on their environment, whether for example, on the constraints of poverty, social class and gender, or, more positively, on the safety net provided by the welfare state (Lasch, 1994; Lewis, 2001a). According to Lupton and Tulloch, (2002), peoples choices may depend in part on the consideration they give to the welfare of others, and on how far others influence the way in which they frame their choices. In addition, the context in which people are making their choices is constantly shifting. Thus the meaning of what it is to be married, or to be a parent has changed and continues to change. Charles and Harris (2004) have argued that choices regarding work/life b alance are different at different states of the lifecycle. Scholars have examined public attitudes towards marriage and cohabitation in order to assess whether the trends in statistics confirm the deinstitutionalisation of marriage (Cherlin, 1994), in which an increase in the acceptability of cohabitation can be interpreted as evidence for weakening of the social norms. Using data from a number of British Social Attitude Surveys, Barlow et. al. found clear evidence of changing public attitudes. More and more people in the United Kingdom were accepting cohabitation both as a partnering and parenting structure, regardless of whether it is undertaken as a prelude or alternative to marriage. In 1994, 70 per cent agreed that People who want children ought to get married, but by 2000 almost half (54 per cent) thought that there was no need to get married in order to have children; cohabitation was good enough. They found increasingly liberal attitudes to pre-marital sex, with the proportion thinking that it was not wrong at all increasing from 42 per cent in 1984 to 62 per cent in 2000. By 2000 more than two-thirds of respondents (67 per cent) agreed it was all right for a couple to live together without intending to get married, and 56 per cent thought it was a good idea for a couple who intend to get married to live together first. Studies by Dyer (1999) and Barlow et al. (2005) found there was a clear difference in attitudes towards cohabitation from young and old generations, indicating a shift in social viewpoint to an acceptance of cohabitation. The younger age groups were more likely to find cohabitation acceptable than older age groups, but all age groups had moved some way towards greater acceptance of pre-marital sex and cohabitation. Barlow et al. argue that over time there is a strong likelihood that society will become more liberal still on these matters, although particular groups, such as the religious, are likely to remain more traditional than the rest. This change in public attitude is echoed by former Home Secretary, Jack Straw who was quoted in the Daily Mail as saying the important thing is the quality of the relationship, not the institution itself (Daily Mail, 16th June, 1999). This acceptance in politics as well as in society is probably one reason why people drift into cohabitation. Barlo w et a!. suggest Britain will probably move towards a Scandinavian pattern, therefore, where long- term cohabitation is widely seen as quite normal, and where marriage is more of a lifestyle choice than an expected part of life. Barlow et al, however, do not interpret the public attitudes to indicate the breakdown or end of marriage as a respected institution. In the 2000 survey, 59 per cent agreed that marriage is still the best kind of relationship. A mere 9 per cent agreed that there is no point getting married it is only a piece of paper, while 73 per cent disagreed. Despite the increasing acceptance of cohabitation, Barlow et al. therefore argue that, overall, marriage is still widely valued as an ideal, but that it is regarded with much more ambivalence when it comes to everyday partnering and   parenting. While only 28 per cent agree that married couples make better parents, just 40 per cent disagree figures virtually unchanged since 2000, (Barlow et al, 2005) According to Barlow et al. (2005), there is a body of   qualitative research that shows that for many cohabitants, living together is seen as a form of marriage rather than an alternative. Moreover, just as the majority think that sex outside marriage is wrong, the same applies to sex outside cohabitation: the large majority of cohabitants, over 80 per cent, think that sex outside a cohabiting relationship is wrong, (Erens et al., 2003). These findings give little support to the notion that many people cohabit outside marriage because cohabitation is more congruent with a project of the self, as individualisation theory would have it (Hall, 1996). Instead research seems to indicate that many traditional norms about relationships still hold true and cohabitation is seen as the equivalent of marriage. According to Barlow et al, (2008), cohabitation is socially accepted as equivalent to marriage and whilst marriage is seen as ideal, social attitudes show great tolerance to differ ent styles of partnering and parenting relationships.